A Systematic Review of Therapeutic Potential of Illicit Drugs: A Narrative Overview of How Cannabinoids and Psychedelics Can be Used in Medicine

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

1 School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, I.R. IRAN

2 Medical Laboratory Science Department, College of Health Science, University of Human Development, Sulaimanyiah, Kurdistan Region of Iraq, IRAQ

3 Department of Agriculture, Jouybar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Jouybar, I.R. IRAN

4 Department of Chemical Engineering, Mahshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mahshahr, I.R. IRAN

5 Department of Chemistry, Payame Noor University, Tehran, I.R. IRAN

6 Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Science (RGUHS), Bangalore, INDIA

Abstract

To aid the therapeutic process, illicit chemical substances and drugs are used in drug therapy. Various cultures have used illegal substances for thousands of years in medicine and various practices. The present study is a general approach to pharmaceutical science and attempts to contextualize drug-assisted therapy through an integrative literature review. All related articles were found through the electronic databases Medical Publications (Pubmed) and Scopus. The research question was related to articles written in English within the last 20 years. The database research found 77 articles on psychedelics between Jan 2000 and Oct 2021. Twenty-two articles were selected for analysis according to the inclusion criteria. In analyzing the texts, we have been able to correlate several aspects. We conclude that psychedelic therapy has great potential and that its rebirth occurs in the context of social transformations and demands in psychotherapy that are unmissable. Database searches between Jan 2000 and Oct 2021 found 1164 articles about cannabinoids. According to the inclusion criteria, only 235 articles were selected for analysis. The United States produced the most publications, followed by Canada and Australia; evidence has steadily increased between 2000 and 2021. The contents of the publications deal with beneficial and adverse health effects, the consequences of cannabis legislation, and its association with various variables. There is a lack of research on cannabis' medicinal use regarding treatments and diseases, its standardization, routes of administration, and doses, recognizing the need for more research.

Keywords

Main Subjects

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[137] Norouzi N., Talebi S., Shahbazi A., An Overview on the Carbon Capture Technologies with an Approach of Green Coal Production Study, Chem. Rev. Lett., 3: 65-78 (2020).
[138] Vessally E., Mohammadi S., Abdoli M., Hosseinian A., Ojaghloo P., Convenient and Robust Metal-Free Synthesis of Benzazole-2-Ones Through the Reaction of Aniline Derivatives and Sodium Cyanate in Aqueous Medium, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 39(5): 11-19 (2020).‏
[139] Gharibzadeh F., Vessally E., Edjlali L., Es' haghi M., Mohammadi R., A DFT Sstudy on Sumanene, Corannulene and Nanosheet as the Anodes in Li−Ion Batteries, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 39: 51-62 (2020).
[140] Afshar M., Khojasteh R. R., Ahmadi R., Nakhaei Moghaddam M., In Silico Adsorption of Lomustin Anticancer Drug on the Surface of Boron Nitride Nanotube, Chem. Rev. Lett., 4: 178-184 (2021).
[141] Norouzi N., Future of Hydrogen in Energy Transition and Reform, J. Chem. Lett., 2: 64-72 (2021).
[142] Vessally E., Hosseinian A., A Computational Study on the Some Small Graphene-Like Nanostructures as the Anodes in Na−Ion Batteries, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 40(3): 691-703 (2021). 
[143] Hashemzadeh B., Edjlali L., Delir Kheirollahi Nezhad P., Vessally E., A DFT Studies on a Potential Anode Compound for Li-Ion Batteries: Hexa-Cata-Hexabenzocoronene Nanographen, Chem. Rev. Lett., 4: 232-238 (2021).
[144] Vessally E., Farajzadeh P., Najaf, E., Possible Sensing Ability of Boron Nitride Nanosheet and Its Al– and Si–Doped Derivatives for Methimazole drug by Computational Study, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 40(4): 1001-1011 (2021).
[145] Majedi S., Sreerama L., Vessally E., Behmagham F., Metal-Free Regioselective Thiocyanation of (Hetero) Aromatic C-H Bonds using Ammonium Thiocyanate: An Overview, J. Chem. Lett., 1: 25-31 (2020).
[146] Amani V., Zakeri M., and Ahmadi R. Binuclear Nickel(II) Complex Containing 6-methyl-2,2’-Bipyridine and Chloride Ligands: Synthesis, Characterization, Thermal Analyses, and Crystal Structure Determination, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE) , 39(2): 113-122 (2020).
[147] Salehi N., Vessally E., Edjlali L., Alkorta I., Eshaghi M., Nan@Tetracyanoethylene (n=1-4) Systems: Sodium Salt Vs Sodium Electride, Chem. Rev. Lett., 3: 207-217 (2020).
[148] Soleimani-Amiri S., Asadbeigi N., Badragheh, S., A Theoretical Approach to New Triplet and Quintet (nitrenoethynyl) alkylmethylenes,(nitrenoethynyl) alkylsilylenes,(nitrenoethynyl) alkylgermylenes, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 39(4): 39-52 (2020).
[149] Sreerama L., Vessally E., Behmagham F., Oxidative Lactamization of Amino Alcohols: An Overview, J. Chem. Lett., 1: 9-18 (2020).
[150] Norouzi N., Ebadi A. G., Bozorgian A., Vessally E., Hoseyni S. J., Energy and Exergy Analysis of Internal Combustion Engine Performance of Spark Ignition for Gasoline, Methane, and Hydrogen Fuels, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 40(6): 1909-1930 (2021).
[151] Kamel M., Mohammadifard, M., Thermodynamic and Reactivity Descriptors Studies on the Interaction of Flutamide Anticancer Drug with Nucleobases: A Computational View, Chem. Rev. Lett., 4: 54-65 (2021).
[152] Vessally E., Musavi M., Poor Heravi M.R., A Density Functional Theory Study of Adsorption Ethionamide on The Surface of the Pristine, Si and Ga and Al-Doped Graphene, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 40(6): 1720-1736 (2021).
[153] Vakili M., Bahramzadeh V., Vakili M., A Comparative Study of SCN- Adsorption on the Al12N12, Al12P12, and Si and Ge -Doped Al12N12 Nano-Cages to Remove from the Environment, J. Chem. Lett., 1: 172-178 (2020).
[154] Bozorgian A., Norouzi N., Ebadi, A.D., Hoseyni S.J., Vessally E., Cogeneration System of Power, Cooling, and Hydrogen from Geothermal Energy: An Exergy Approach, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 41(2): 706-721 (2022).
[155] Mosav, M., Adsorption Behavior of Mephentermine on the Pristine and Si, Al, Ga- Doped Boron Nitride Nanosheets: DFT Studies, J. Chem. Lett., 1: 164-171 (2020).
[156] Norouzi N., Joda F., Exergy and Stabilization Design of a Fusion Power Plant and its Waste Heat Recovery to Produce Hydrogen, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 41: (2022) [Article in Press].
[157] Norouzi N., Talebi S., An Overview on the Green Petroleum Production, Chem. Rev. Lett., 3: 38-52 (2020) 38-52.
[158] Vessally E., Siadati S.A., Hosseinian A., Edjlali L., Selective Sensing of Ozone and the Chemically Active Gaseous Species of the Troposphere by Using the C20 Fullerene and Graphene Segment, Talanta, 162: 505-510 (2017).
[159] Norouzi N., Ebadi A. G., Bozorgian A., Hoseyni S.J., Vessally E., Cogeneration System of Power, Cooling, and Hydrogen from Geothermal Energy: An Exergy Approach, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 41(2): 706-721 (2022).
[160] Rabipour S., Mahmood E.A., Afsharkhas M., A Review on the Cannabinoids Impacts on Psychiatric Disorders, Chem. Rev. Lett., 5: (2022).
[161] Siadati S.A., Vessally E., Hosseinian A., Edjlali L., Possibility of Sensing, Adsorbing, and Destructing the Tabun-2D-Skeletal (Tabun Nerve Agent) by C20 Fullerene and its Boron and Nitrogen Doped Derivatives, Synthetic Metals, 220: 606-611 (2016).‏
[162] Norouzi N., Talebi S., Exergy, Economical and Environmental Analysis of a Natural gas Direct Chemical Looping Carbon Capture and Formic Acid-Based Hydrogen Storage System, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 41 (2022) [Article in Press].
[163] Norouzi N., Dynamic Modeling of the Effect of Vehicle Hybridization Policy on Carbon Emission and Energy Consumption, J. Chem. Lett., 3: 99-106 (2022).
[164] Rabipour S., Mahmood E.A., Afsharkhas M., Medicinal Use of Marijuana and its Impacts on Respiratory System, J. Chem. Lett., 3: 86-94 (2022).
[165] Norouzi N., Fani M., Energy and Exergy Analysis and Selection of the Appropriate Operating Fluid for a Combined Power and Hydrogen Production System Using a Geothermal Fueled ORC and a PEM Electrolyzer, Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. (IJCCE), 41 (2022) [Article in Press].
[166] Cao Y., Soleimani-Amiri S., Ahmadi R., Issakhov A., Ebadi A.G., Vessally E., Alkoxysulfenylation of Alkenes: Development and Recent Advances, RSC Advances, 11: 32513-32525 (2021).
[167] Vessally E., Soleimani-Amiri S., Hosseinian A., Edjlali L., Babazadeh M., Chemical Fixation of CO2 to 2-aminobenzonitriles: A Straightforward Route to Quinazoline-2, 4 (1H, 3H)-Diones with Green and Sustainable Chemistry Perspectives, Journal of CO2 Utilization, 21: 342-352 (2017).
[168] Arshadi S., Vessally E., Hosseinian A., Soleimani Amiri S., Edjlali L., Three-Component Coupling of CO2, Propargyl Alcohols, and Amines: An Environmentally Benign Access to Cyclic and Acyclic Carbamates (A Review), Journal of CO2 Utilization, 21: 108-118 (2017).
[169] Kassaee M.Z., Buazar F., Soleimani Amiri S., Triplet Germylenes with Separable Minima at ab Initio and DFT Levels, Journal of Molecular Structure: THEOCHEM, 866(1-3): 52-57 (2008).
[170] Kassaee M. Z., Aref Rad H., Soleimani Amiri S., Carbon–Nitrogen Nanorings and Nanoribbons: A Theoretical Approach for Altering the Ground States of Cyclacenes and Polyacenes, Monatshefte für Chemie-Chemical Monthly, 141(12): 1313-1319 (2010).
[171] Koohi M., Soleimani Amiri S., Haerizade B.N., Substituent Effect on Structure, Stability, and Aromaticity of Novel BnNmC20–(n+ m) Heterofullerenes, Journal of Physical Organic Chemistry, 30(11): e3682 (2017).
[172] Koohi M., Soleimani-Amiri S., Shariati M., Novel X-and Y-Substituted Heterofullerenes X 4 Y 4 C 12 Developed from the Nanocage C 20, where X= B, Al, Ga, Si and Y= N, P, As, Ge: a Comparative Investigation on their Structural, Stability, and Electronic Properties at DFT, Structural Chemistry, 29(3): 909-920 (2018).
[173] Soleimani‐Amiri S., Singlet and Triplet Cyclonona‐3, 5, 7‐trienylidenes and Their α, ά‐halogenated Derivatives at DFT, Journal of Physical Organic Chemistry, 33(2): e4018 (2020).
[174] Soleimani-Amiri S., Asadbeigi N., Badragheh S., A Theoretical Approach to New Triplet and Quintet (nitrenoethynyl) alkylmethylenes,(nitrenoethynyl) alkylsilylenes,(nitrenoethynyl) alkylgermylenes. Iranian Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (IJCCE), 39(4): 39-52 (2020).
[175] Soleimani-Amiri S., Identification of Structural, Spectroscopic, and Electronic Analysis of Synthesized 4-(5-Phenyl-1, 3, 4-Oxadiazol-2-Ylthio)-3-Methylbenzene-1, 2-Diol: A Theoretical Approach, Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds, 41(3): 635-652 (2021).
[176] Poor Heravi M.R., Azizi B., Abdulkareem Mahmood E., Ebadi A.G., Ansari M.J., Soleimani-Amiri S., Molecular Simulation of the Paracetamol Drug Interaction eith Pt-Decorated BC3 Graphene-Like Nanosheet, Molecular Simulation, 48(6): 517-525 (2022).
[177] Ghazvini M., Sheikholeslami Farahani F., Soleimani-Amiri S., Salimifard M., Rostamian R., Green Synthesis of Pyrido [2, 1-a] isoquinolines and Pyrido [1, 2-a] quinolines by Using ZnO Nanoparticles, Synlett, 29(04): 493-496 (2018).
[178] Soleimani‐Amiri S., Shafaei F., Varasteh Moradi A., Gholami‐Orimi F., Rostami Z., A Novel Synthesis and Antioxidant Evaluation of Functionalized [1, 3]‐Oxazoles Using Fe3O4‐Magnetic Nanoparticles, Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 56(10): 2744-2752 (2019).
[179] Soleimani Amiri S., Green Production And Antioxidant Activity Study of New Pyrrolo [2, 1‐a] Isoquinolines, Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry, 57(11): 4057-4069 (2020).
[180] Samiei, Z., Soleimani-Amiri, S., Azizi, Z. Fe3O4@ C@ OSO3H as an Efficient, Recyclable Magnetic Nanocatalyst in Pechmann Condensation: Green Synthesis, Characterization, and Theoretical Study, Molecular Diversity, 25(1): 67-86 (2021).
[181] Taheri Hatkehlouei S.F., Mirza B., Soleimani-Amiri S., Solvent-Free One-Pot Synthesis of Diverse Dihydropyrimidinones/ Tetrahydropyrimidinones Using Biginelli Reaction Catalyzed by Fe3O4@ C@ OSO3H, Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds, 42(4): 1341-1357 (2022).
[182] Amiri S.S., Ghazvini M., Khandan S., Afrashteh S., KF/Clinoptilolite@ MWCNTs Nanocomposites Promoted a Novel Four-Component Reaction of Isocyanides for the Green Synthesis of Pyrimidoisoquinolines in Water, Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds: 1-16 (2021).
[183] Zarei F., Soleimani Amiri S., Azizi Z., Heterogeneously Catalyzed Pechmann Condensation Employing  the HFe (SO4) 2.4 H2O-Chitosan Nano-Composite: Ultrasound-Accelerated Green Synthesis of Coumarins, Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds: 1-18 (2021).
[184] Feizpour Bonab M., Soleimani Amiri S., Mirza B., Fe3O4@ C@ PrS-SO3H: A Novel Efficient Magnetically Recoverable Heterogeneous Catalyst in the Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of Coumarin Derivatives, Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds: 1-16 (2022).
[185] Soleimani-Amiri S., Hossaini Z., Azizi Z., Synthesis and Investigation of Biological Activity of New Oxazinoazepines: Application of Fe3O4/CuO/ZnO@ MWCNT Magnetic Nanocomposite in Reduction of 4-Nitrophenol in Water, Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds, 1-22 (2022).
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[188] Ahmadi R., Khalighi A., Kalateh K., Amani V., Khavasi H.R., catena-Poly [[(5, 5′-dimethyl-2, 2′-bipyridine-κ2N, N′) cadmium (II)]-di-μ-chlorido]. Acta Crystallographica Section E: Structure Reports Online, 64(10): m1233-m1233 (2008).
[189] Sellers E.M., Leiderman D.B., Psychedelic Drugs as Therapeutics: No Illusions About the Challenges. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 103(4): 561-564 (2018).
[190] Kadhim M.M., Mahmood E.A., Abbasi V., Poor Heravi M.R., Habibzadeh S., Mohammadi-Aghdam S., Shoaei S. M., Theoretical Investigation of the Titanium—Nitrogen Heterofullerenes Evolved from the Smallest Fullerene, J. Mol. Graph. Model., (2022).
[191] Hosseini S.M., Hosseini‐Monfared H., Abbasi V., Silver Ferrite–Graphene Nanocomposite and its Good Photocatalytic Performance in Air and Visible Light for Organic Dye Removal, Applied Organometallic Chemistry, 31 (4), e3589 (2017).
[192] Abbasi V., Hosseini‐Monfared H., Hosseini S.M., Mn (III)‐Salan/Graphene Oxide/Magnetite Nanocomposite as a Highly Selective Catalyst for Aerobic Epoxidation of Olefins, Applied Organometallic Chemistry, 31(2), e3554 (2017).
[193] Abbasi V., Hosseini Monfared H., Hosseini S.M., A Heterogenized Chiral Imino Indanol Complex of Manganese as an Efficient Catalyst for Aerobic Epoxidation of Olefins, New Journal of Chemistry, 41(18): 9866-9874 (2017).
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